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  213. <!-- Page content -->
  214. <doc-anchor-target id="write-c-bindings" class="break-words">
  215. <h1>
  216. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#write-c-bindings">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  217. <span>Write C++ Bindings</span>
  218. </h1>
  219. </doc-anchor-target>
  220. <doc-anchor-target id="quick-start">
  221. <h2>
  222. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#quick-start">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  223. <span>Quick Start</span>
  224. </h2>
  225. </doc-anchor-target>
  226. <p>pkpy provides a <a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/">pybind11</a> compatible layer which allows users to do convenient bindings.
  227. Header files are located in the <code translate="no" v-pre>include/pybind11</code> directory. Make sure you have added <code translate="no" v-pre>-Iinclude</code> to your compiler flags.</p>
  228. <p>To begin with, use <code translate="no" v-pre>py::scoped_interpreter guard{}</code> to start the interpreter before using any Python objects.
  229. Or explicitly call <code translate="no" v-pre>py::interpreter::initialize()</code> and <code translate="no" v-pre>py::interpreter::finalize()</code>.</p>
  230. <doc-anchor-target id="module">
  231. <h3>
  232. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#module">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  233. <span>module</span>
  234. </h3>
  235. </doc-anchor-target>
  236. <div id="module-code-1" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  237. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">#include &lt;pybind11/pybind11.h&gt;
  238. namespace py = pybind11;
  239. PYBIND11_EMBEDDED_MODULE(example, m) {
  240. m.def(&quot;add&quot;, [](int a, int b) {
  241. return a + b;
  242. });
  243. auto math = m.def_submodule(&quot;math&quot;);
  244. }</code></pre>
  245. </doc-codeblock></div>
  246. <doc-anchor-target id="function">
  247. <h3>
  248. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#function">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  249. <span>function</span>
  250. </h3>
  251. </doc-anchor-target>
  252. <div id="function-code-1" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  253. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
  254. int add(int a, int b, int c) { return a + b + c; }
  255. void register_function(py::module_&amp; m)
  256. {
  257. m.def(&quot;add&quot;, py::overload_cast&lt;int, int&gt;(&amp;add));
  258. // support function overload
  259. m.def(&quot;add&quot;, py::overload_cast&lt;int, int, int&gt;(&amp;add));
  260. // bind with default arguments
  261. m.def(&quot;sub&quot;, [](int a, int b) {
  262. return a - b;
  263. }, py::arg(&quot;a&quot;) = 1, py::arg(&quot;b&quot;) = 2);
  264. // bind *args
  265. m.def(&quot;add&quot;, [](py::args args) {
  266. int sum = 0;
  267. for (auto&amp; arg : args) {
  268. sum += arg.cast&lt;int&gt;();
  269. }
  270. return sum;
  271. });
  272. // bind **kwargs
  273. m.def(&quot;add&quot;, [](py::kwargs kwargs) {
  274. int sum = 0;
  275. for (auto item : kwargs) {
  276. sum += item.second.cast&lt;int&gt;();
  277. }
  278. return sum;
  279. });
  280. }</code></pre>
  281. </doc-codeblock></div>
  282. <doc-anchor-target id="class">
  283. <h3>
  284. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#class">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  285. <span>class</span>
  286. </h3>
  287. </doc-anchor-target>
  288. <div id="class-code-1" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  289. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">struct Point
  290. {
  291. const int x;
  292. int y;
  293. public:
  294. Point() : x(0), y(0) {}
  295. Point(int x, int y) : x(x), y(y) {}
  296. Point(const Point&amp; p) : x(p.x), y(p.y) {}
  297. std::string stringfy() const {
  298. return &quot;(&quot; + std::to_string(x) + &quot;, &quot; + std::to_string(y) + &quot;)&quot;;
  299. }
  300. };
  301. struct Point3D : Point
  302. {
  303. private:
  304. int z;
  305. public:
  306. Point3D(int x, int y, int z) : Point(x, y), z(z) {}
  307. int get_z() const { return z; }
  308. void set_z(int z) { this-&gt;z = z; }
  309. };
  310. void bind_class(py::module_&amp; m)
  311. {
  312. py::class_&lt;Point&gt;(m, &quot;Point&quot;)
  313. .def(py::init&lt;&gt;())
  314. .def(py::init&lt;int, int&gt;())
  315. .def(py::init&lt;const Point&amp;&gt;())
  316. .def_readonly(&quot;x&quot;, &amp;Point::x)
  317. .def_readwrite(&quot;y&quot;, &amp;Point::y)
  318. .def(&quot;__str__&quot;, &amp;Point::stringfy);
  319. // only support single inheritance
  320. py::class_&lt;Point3D, Point&gt;(m, &quot;Point3D&quot;, py::dynamic_attr())
  321. .def(py::init&lt;int, int, int&gt;())
  322. .def_property(&quot;z&quot;, &amp;Point3D::get_z, &amp;Point3D::set_z);
  323. // dynamic_attr will enable the dict of bound class
  324. }</code></pre>
  325. </doc-codeblock></div>
  326. <doc-anchor-target id="operators">
  327. <h3>
  328. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#operators">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  329. <span>operators</span>
  330. </h3>
  331. </doc-anchor-target>
  332. <div id="operators-code-1" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  333. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">#include &lt;pybind11/operators.h&gt;
  334. namespace py = pybind11;
  335. struct Int {
  336. int value;
  337. Int(int value) : value(value) {}
  338. Int operator+(const Int&amp; other) const {
  339. return Int(value + other.value);
  340. }
  341. Int operator-(const Int&amp; other) const {
  342. return Int(value - other.value);
  343. }
  344. bool operator==(const Int&amp; other) const {
  345. return value == other.value;
  346. }
  347. bool operator!=(const Int&amp; other) const {
  348. return value != other.value;
  349. }
  350. };
  351. void bind_operators(py::module_&amp; m)
  352. {
  353. py::class_&lt;Int&gt;(m, &quot;Int&quot;)
  354. .def(py::init&lt;int&gt;())
  355. .def(py::self + py::self)
  356. .def(py::self - py::self)
  357. .def(py::self == py::self)
  358. .def(py::self != py::self);
  359. // other operators are similar
  360. }</code></pre>
  361. </doc-codeblock></div>
  362. <doc-anchor-target id="pyobject">
  363. <h3>
  364. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#pyobject">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  365. <span>py::object</span>
  366. </h3>
  367. </doc-anchor-target>
  368. <p><code translate="no" v-pre>py::object</code> is just simple wrapper around <code translate="no" v-pre>PyVar</code>. It supports some convenient methods to interact with Python objects.</p>
  369. <p>here are some common methods:</p>
  370. <div id="pyobject-code-1" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  371. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">obj.attr(&quot;x&quot;); // access attribute
  372. obj[1]; // access item
  373. obj.is_none(); // same as obj is None in Python
  374. obj.is(obj2); // same as obj is obj2 in Python
  375. // operators
  376. obj + obj2; // same as obj + obj2 in Python
  377. // ...
  378. obj == obj2; // same as obj == obj2 in Python
  379. // ...
  380. obj(...); // same as obj.__call__(...)
  381. py::cast(obj); // cast to Python object
  382. obj.cast&lt;T&gt;; // cast to C++ type
  383. py::type::of(obj); // get type of obj
  384. py::type::of&lt;T&gt;(); // get type of T, if T is registered</code></pre>
  385. </doc-codeblock></div>
  386. <p>you can also create some builtin objects with their according wrappers:</p>
  387. <div id="pyobject-code-2" class="codeblock-wrapper"><doc-codeblock>
  388. <pre translate="no" class="language-cpp"><code v-pre class="language-cpp">py::bool_ b = {true};
  389. py::int_ i = {1};
  390. py::float_ f = {1.0};
  391. py::str s = {&quot;hello&quot;};
  392. py::list l = {1, 2, 3};
  393. py::tuple t = {1, 2, 3};
  394. // ...</code></pre>
  395. </doc-codeblock></div>
  396. <doc-anchor-target id="more-examples">
  397. <h2>
  398. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#more-examples">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  399. <span>More Examples</span>
  400. </h2>
  401. </doc-anchor-target>
  402. <p>More examples please see the test <a href="https://github.com/pocketpy/gsoc-2024-dev/tree/main/pybind11/tests">folder</a> in the GSoC repository. All tested features are supported.</p>
  403. <doc-anchor-target id="limits-and-comparison">
  404. <h2>
  405. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#limits-and-comparison">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  406. <span>Limits and Comparison</span>
  407. </h2>
  408. </doc-anchor-target>
  409. <p>This is a feature list of pybind11 for pocketpy. It lists all completed and pending features. It also lists the features that cannot be implemented in the current version of pocketpy.</p>
  410. <doc-anchor-target id="function-1">
  411. <h3>
  412. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#function-1">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  413. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/functions.html">Function</a></span>
  414. </h3>
  415. </doc-anchor-target>
  416. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  417. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Function overloading</li>
  418. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Return value policy</li>
  419. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> is_prepend</li>
  420. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>*args</code> and <code translate="no" v-pre>**kwargs</code></li>
  421. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Keep-alive</li>
  422. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Call Guard</li>
  423. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Default arguments</li>
  424. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Keyword-Only arguments</li>
  425. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Positional-Only arguments</li>
  426. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Allow/Prohibiting None arguments</li>
  427. </ul>
  428. <doc-anchor-target id="class-1">
  429. <h3>
  430. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#class-1">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  431. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/classes.html">Class</a></span>
  432. </h3>
  433. </doc-anchor-target>
  434. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  435. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Creating bindings for a custom type</li>
  436. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Binding lambda functions</li>
  437. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Dynamic attributes</li>
  438. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Inheritance and automatic downcasting</li>
  439. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Enumerations and internal types</li>
  440. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Instance and static fields</li>
  441. </ul>
  442. <blockquote>
  443. <p>Binding static fields may never be implemented in pocketpy because it requires a metaclass, which is a heavy and infrequently used feature.</p>
  444. </blockquote>
  445. <doc-anchor-target id="exceptions">
  446. <h3>
  447. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#exceptions">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  448. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/exceptions.html">Exceptions</a></span>
  449. </h3>
  450. </doc-anchor-target>
  451. <p>Need further discussion.</p>
  452. <doc-anchor-target id="smart-pointers">
  453. <h3>
  454. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#smart-pointers">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  455. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/smart_ptrs.html">Smart pointers</a></span>
  456. </h3>
  457. </doc-anchor-target>
  458. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  459. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> std::shared_ptr</li>
  460. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> std::unique_ptr</li>
  461. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Custom smart pointers</li>
  462. </ul>
  463. <doc-anchor-target id="type-conversions">
  464. <h3>
  465. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#type-conversions">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  466. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/cast/index.html">Type conversions</a></span>
  467. </h3>
  468. </doc-anchor-target>
  469. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  470. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Python built-in types</li>
  471. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> STL Containers</li>
  472. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Functional</li>
  473. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Chrono</li>
  474. </ul>
  475. <doc-anchor-target id="python-c-interface">
  476. <h3>
  477. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#python-c-interface">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  478. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/pycpp/object.html">Python C++ interface</a></span>
  479. </h3>
  480. </doc-anchor-target>
  481. <p>Need further discussion.</p>
  482. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  483. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>object</code></li>
  484. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>none</code></li>
  485. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>type</code></li>
  486. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>bool_</code></li>
  487. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>int_</code></li>
  488. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>float_</code></li>
  489. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>str</code></li>
  490. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>bytes</code></li>
  491. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>bytearray</code></li>
  492. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>tuple</code></li>
  493. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>list</code></li>
  494. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>set</code></li>
  495. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>dict</code></li>
  496. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>slice</code></li>
  497. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>iterable</code></li>
  498. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>iterator</code></li>
  499. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>function</code></li>
  500. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>buffer</code></li>
  501. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>memoryview</code></li>
  502. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> <code translate="no" v-pre>capsule</code></li>
  503. </ul>
  504. <doc-anchor-target id="miscellaneous">
  505. <h3>
  506. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#miscellaneous">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  507. <span><a href="https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/en/stable/advanced/misc.html">Miscellaneous</a></span>
  508. </h3>
  509. </doc-anchor-target>
  510. <ul class="contains-task-list">
  511. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)</li>
  512. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" /> Binding sequence data types, iterators, the slicing protocol, etc.</li>
  513. <li class="task-list-item"><input disabled="disabled" type="checkbox" checked="checked" /> Convenient operators binding</li>
  514. </ul>
  515. <doc-anchor-target id="differences-between-cpython-and-pocketpy">
  516. <h3>
  517. <doc-anchor-trigger class="header-anchor-trigger" to="#differences-between-cpython-and-pocketpy">#</doc-anchor-trigger>
  518. <span>Differences between CPython and pocketpy</span>
  519. </h3>
  520. </doc-anchor-target>
  521. <ul>
  522. <li><p>only <code translate="no" v-pre>add</code>, <code translate="no" v-pre>sub</code> and <code translate="no" v-pre>mul</code> have corresponding right versions in pocketpy. So if you bind <code translate="no" v-pre>int() &gt;&gt; py::self</code>, it will has no effect in pocketpy.</p>
  523. </li>
  524. <li><p><code translate="no" v-pre>__new__</code> and <code translate="no" v-pre>__del__</code> are not supported in pocketpy.</p>
  525. </li>
  526. <li><p>in-place operators, such as <code translate="no" v-pre>+=</code>, <code translate="no" v-pre>-=</code>, <code translate="no" v-pre>*=</code>, etc., are not supported in pocketpy.</p>
  527. </li>
  528. <li><p>the return value of <code translate="no" v-pre>globals</code> is immutable in pocketpy.</p>
  529. </li>
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